Indian Literature
The literary tradition in India is primarily oral literature in vernacular languages. The works were composed to be recited or sung and were so transmitted for many generations before being written down. It was not until about the 16th century that an extensive written literature appeared.
SANSKRIT LITERATURE
The Sanskrit literature is divided in two main periods:
- the Vedic, when the Vedic form of Sanskrit generally prevailed
- the Sanskrit, when classical Sanskrit predominated; by 400BC, Sanskrit had become the standard language of the court.
1. THE VEDIC PERIOD
The earlier works written in Vedic Sanskrit were religious. The Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and the Sutras are the most important and famous religious works.
The Vedas are the main scriptural text of Hinduism, also known as the Sanatana Dharma.
The Sanskrit word “Veda” means “knowledge”. Most important are the four collections of hymns and prayers composed for different ritualistic purposes, which are the basic Vedas.
The earliest is the Rig – Veda (“Veda of verses”) a collection of 1028 hymns. It is the most important of these collections, gathering the work of generations of poets, extending over many centuries.
The Sama – Veda (“Veda of chants”) consists of stanzas taken from the Rig – Veda meant to be sung to fixed melodies.
The Yajur – Veda (“Veda of sacrificial prayers”) contains prose and verse formulas that were to be pronounced by the priest performing the manual part of sacrifice. There are two branches of this Veda known as the Krishna - "Black" and Shukla - "White" Yajur-Veda. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and sayings necessary for the sacrifice; the Black incorporates explanations and directions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses.
The three Vedas were recognized as canonical and called “Trayi Vidya” – “The Threefold Knowledge”.
The Atharva – Veda (“Veda of charms”) written at a later period, was included in the canon only after a long struggle. Influenced by popular religion, it included spells and incantations for the practice of magic.
The Brahmanas are ritual texts that describe in detail the sacrifices in which the Mantras were to be used, as well as comment on the meaning of the sacrificial ritual.
Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the four Vedas. The most important of the Brahmanas is the Shatapatha Brahmana of the White Yajur – Veda.
Rig – Veda
- Aitareya Brahmana
- Kaushitaki Brahmana
Sama – Veda
- PB, SadvB
- Jayminiya Brahmana
Yajur – Veda
- Krishna
- Taittiriya Brahmana
- Shukla
- Shatapatha Brahmana, Madhya Dina recension
- Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanva recension
Atharva – Veda
- Gopatha Brahmana
The Aranyakas (“The Forest Books”) are theosophical treatises, meant to be studied in the solitude of the forest.
The Aranyakas discuss philosophy and sacrifice. They constitute a more philosophical and mystical interpretation of the themes presented in the Vedas, as opposed to the Brahmanas, which were primarily concerned with the proper performance of ritual.
The Aranyakas are associated with and named after individual Vedic shakhas – branches.
- Aitareya Aranyaka – the Shakala Shakha of Rig – Veda;
- Kaushitaki Aranyaka - the Kaushitaki and Shankhayana Shakhas of Rig – Veda;
- Taittiriya Aranyaka - the Taittiriya Shakha of Krishna (Black) -Yajur - Veda;
- Katha Aranyaka - the Katha-Charaka Shakha of Krishna (Black) -Yajur – Veda;
- Maitrayaniya Aranyaka - the Maitrayaniya Shakha of
Krishna (Black) -Yajur – Veda; - Talavakara Aranyaka - the Talavakara or Jaiminiya Shakha of Sama – Veda;
The Atharva – Veda has no surviving Aranyaka.
The Upanishads which form the last section of literature of the Veda, discuss philosophy, meditation and nature of God.
The principal early Upanishads develop answers to questions posed in the Rig – Veda and the Brahmanas regarding the real significance of the Vedic sacrifice and the source and controlling power of the world and individual.
They are best known for their doctrine of Brahman, the ultimate and universal reality of pure being and consciousness, and the identity of Brahman with the inner essence of the human being.
The Upanishads are not a systemic exposition of concepts but a heterogeneous compilation of material from different sources. In addition to Brahman ataman teaching, they contain information about allegorical interpretation of the sacrifice, death and rebirth processes, and yogic practice and experience. They are the basis for the later philosophical schools of Vedanta.
Different Upanishads are affiliated with the four Vedas. The longest and oldest Upanishads are the Brahadaranyaka and the Chandoya, which are composed in prose.
There are eleven major Upanishads that are accepted as shruti by all Hindus.
- Aitareya – “Rig – Veda“
- Brhadaranyaka – “White Yajur – Veda“
- Isa – “White Yajur – Veda”
- Taittirīya – “Black Yajur – Veda”
- Katha – “Black Yajur – Veda”
- Chandogya – “Sama – Veda”
- Kena – “Sama – Veda”
- Mundaka – “Atharva – Veda”
- Mandukya – “Atharva – Veda”
- Prasna – “Atharva – Veda”
- Svetasvatara
The Kausitaki and Maitrayani Upanishads are sometimes added to extend the canon to 13.
The Sutras were written in the final stage of the Vedic period. They are treatises dealing with Vedic ritual and customary law. They were written to fulfill the need for a short survey in mnemonic, aphoristic form of the past literature.
There are two forms of sutras:
- The Srauta Sutras which develop the ritualistic side
- The Grihya Sutras
Those Grihya Sutras dealing with social and legal usage are the Dharma Sutras, the oldest source of Indian law.
2. THE SANSKRIT PERIOD
The first period of the Sanskrit age is one of epics. They are divided into two main groupings:
- The natural epics
- The artificial epics
The oldest and most representative work of the natural school is the “Mahabharata”, while the oldest and best – known masterpiece of the artificial epics is the “Ramayana”.
THE MAHABHARATA is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India. With a total length of more then 90,000 verses the Mahabharata is the longest epic poem in world literature.
Originally, the text was 8,800 verses long when it was composed by Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa and was known as the Jaya (Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the Bharata recited by Vaisampayana and finally over 90,000 verses in the Mahabharata recited by Ugrasravas. It is the foremost source concerning classical Indian civilization and Hindu ideals.
While there are many subplots and irrelevant tales, the Mahabharata is primarily the fabulous account of a dynastic struggle and great civil war in the kingdom of Kurukshetra, which in the 9th cent. B.C. encompassed the region around modern Delhi.
The throne of Kurukshetra fell to the prince Dhritarashtra, but he was blind and therefore, according to custom, not eligible to rule. Pandu, his younger brother, became king instead, but he renounced the throne and retired as a hermit to the Himalayas; Dhritarashtra then became king.
When the five sons of Pandu, the Pandavas, came of age, the eldest, Yuddhisthira, demanded the throne from his uncle, Dhritarashtra. However, the sons of Dhritarashtra, the Kauravas, treacherously plotted against the Pandavas, the rightful heirs.
The five brothers were eventually driven from the kingdom by the Kauravas, and in hiding as soldiers of fortune they married in common the Princess Draupadi. Dhritarashtra subsequently renounced the throne and divided the kingdom between the Pandavas and his own sons.
The Kauravas, jealous and not content with the territorial settlement, challenged the Pandavas to a great dice match, at which they won the entire kingdom by devious means. After 12 years of wandering in exile and an additional year of living in disguise the Pandavas returned with their friend Krishna to reclaim the kingdom, but the Kauravas refused to abdicate and a great battle ensued.
Before the battle began, Krishna preached the exalted Bhagavad-Gita. The forces engaged, and after three weeks of fighting, the Pandavas won. Yuddhisthira, the eldest, ascended the throne. After a long and peaceful reign he and his brothers abdicated and with their wife Draupadi set out for the Himalayas, where they entered the blissful City of the Gods.
THE RAMAYANA is an ancient epic attributed to the poet Maharishi Valmiki. Having a length of 24,000 verses, Ramayana tells the story of prince Rama of Ayodhya, whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon king of Lanka.
Valmiki Ramayana has been divided into seven books, dealing with the life of Rama from his birth to his death.
1. Bala Kanda
Retiring King Dasaratha of Ayodha chooses his son Rama as his heir. His wife Kaikeyi asks that he appoint another son Bharata, instead. Kaikeyi pleads that he owes her two favors, and she feels misfortune will come upon her if he doesn't crown Bharata king and banish Rama to the forest for fourteen years.
2. Ayodhya Kanda
The king reluctantly agrees, so Rama goes with his beautiful wife, Sita, and his brother Laksmana, leaving their riches to live a simple life.
3. Aranya Kanda
In the forest the three meet the demoness Surpanakha who falls in love with Rama. Rama refuses her advances and Laksmana wounds her. She flees to her brother Ravana, ruler of the island kingdom of Lanka. After hearing Surpanakha's report of the beauty of Sita, Ravana decides that he must have Sita and changes himself into in wandering holy man to find her in the forest. When Rama and Laksmana are distracted, Ravana carries Sita off to Lanka.
4. Kishkindya Kanda
Sita mourns in Ravana's garden in Lanka, while Rama and Laksmana enlist the services of Hanuman, the monkey king, to help them find her.
5. Sundara Kanda
Hanuman, able to make himself larger or smaller, starts his search for Sita by taking a giant step to the Island of Lanka. Carrying Rama's ring he finds Sita and identifies himself as Rama's messenger. Sita is delighted, but Hanuman is caught and Ravana sets Hanuman's tail on fire. Hanuman escapes and sets fire to Lanka.
6. Yuddha Kanda
Rama, Laksmana, Hanuman, and his monkey army lay siege on Lanka. The monkeys make a bridge to Lanka, and after a long battle with spears, bows and arrows, Rama kills Ravana.
7. Uttara Kanda
Sita is not received by Rama unreservedly; he questions her chastity after having lived in the house of another man. When he asks her to undergo the test by fire; she agrees. Proving her chastity by remaining unscathed by the fire, she rejoins Rama. Later, Rama abandons her to maintain the sanctity of public opinion and she goes to live in the ashram of sage Valmiki and bears twin sons Lava and Kusa, who as young men became reunited with their father, the god-king Rama.
DRAMA as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, influenced by those hymns of the Rig-Veda which contain dialogues.
The Sanskrit drama is characterized by the complete absence of tragedy; the usual themes are love and heroism. The play almost always opens with a prayer and is followed by a dialogue between the stage manager and one of the actors, referring to the author and the play.
One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is Sudraka’s Mricchakatika (“The little clay Cart”). The main plot is about a young man named Charudatta, and his love for Vasantasena, a rich courtesan. The love affair is complicated by a royal courtier, who is also attracted to Vasantasena.
The Natya Shastra (“Scripture of Dance”) is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft.
The text specifically describes the proper way one should go about staging a Sanskrit drama. It addresses a wide variety of topics including the proper occasions for staging a drama, the proper designs for theatres, the types of people who are allowed to be drama critics and most especially, specific instructions and advice for actors, playwrights and producers.
Bhasa is one of the best Sanskrit playwrights, second only to Kalidasa. Thirteen manuscripts written by him were discovered in an old library in 1913 by the scholar Ganapati Shastry.
Bhasa’s most famous plays are:
- Svapna Vasavadattam – “Vasavadatta’s dream”
- Pancharata
- Pratijna Yaugandharayanam – “The vows of Yaugandharayana”
The greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit is Kalidasa. He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes.
Three famous plays written by Kalidasa are:
- Malavikagnimitram – “Malavika and Agnimitra”
- Vikramorvasiyam – “Vikrama and Urvashi”
- Abhijnanasakuntalam – “The recognition of Sakuntala”
The last one is the most famous and was the first to be translated into English and German.
Malavikagnimitram is his first work and tells the story of king Agnimitra, who falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Malavika. When the queen discovers her husband’s passion for this girl, she becomes infuriated and has Malavika imprisoned, but as fate would have it, Malavika is in fact a true-born princess, thus legitimizing the affair.
Abhijnanasakuntalam tells the story of another king, Dushyanta, who falls in love with another girl of lowly birth, the lovely Sakuntala. The couple is happily married and things seem to be going smoothly until Fate intervenes.
When the king is called back to the court by some pressing business, his new bride accidentally offends a sage who puts a curse on her, erasing the young girl entirely from the king’s memory. After some time, the sage concedes that the king’s memory will return when Sakuntala returns to him the ring he gave her.
The girl travels to meet him but she loses the ring in a river. And to make matters worse, she soon discovers that she is pregnant with the king’s child. But true love always wins, and when a fisherman finds the ring, the king’s memory returns and all is well.
Vikramorvasiyam is more mystical than the earlier plays. The king Pururavas falls in love with a celestial nymph, Urvashi. After writing her mortal suitor a love letter, Urvashi returns to the heavens to perform in a celestial play. However, she misses her cue and pronounces her lover’s name during the performance. As a punishment for ruining the play, Urvashi is banished from heaven, but cursed to return the moment her human lover lays eyes on the child that she will bear him. The curse is eventually lifted, and the lovers are allowed to remain together on Earth.
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